Collection Story for 2023 Exhibition in Edinburgh
This is a collection desctription of the exhibition, < Korean Traditional Embroidery, 2023 Exhibition in Edinburgh >
About The Traditional Korean Embroidery
Defining traditional Korean embroidery in a few words can be a challenge. It encompasses both ancient Korean embroidery artefacts and the modern artwork created using Korean embroidery techniques. While Korea's traditional embroidery shares commonalities with its East Asian neighbors, it possesses unique features that set it apart. The use of firmly twisted silk threads and a specific set of longevity symbols are among its distinguishing characteristics.
The most striking aspects that define Korean embroidery are the texture and three-dimensional effects achieved through the use of twisted threads. Additionally, the choice of colors and design compositions, laden with symbolic meanings, reflects both external and internal influences. While understanding the materials and spiritual components of Korean culture and art can deepen one's appreciation of Korean embroidery, sometimes it's enough to simply closely examine these works and admire the beauty of these handcrafted creations while sensing the time and effort invested in them.
Defining traditional Korean embroidery in a few words can be a challenge. It encompasses both ancient Korean embroidery artefacts and the modern artwork created using Korean embroidery techniques. While Korea's traditional embroidery shares commonalities with its East Asian neighbors, it possesses unique features that set it apart. The use of firmly twisted silk threads and a specific set of longevity symbols are among its distinguishing characteristics.
The most striking aspects that define Korean embroidery are the texture and three-dimensional effects achieved through the use of twisted threads. Additionally, the choice of colors and design compositions, laden with symbolic meanings, reflects both external and internal influences. While understanding the materials and spiritual components of Korean culture and art can deepen one's appreciation of Korean embroidery, sometimes it's enough to simply closely examine these works and admire the beauty of these handcrafted creations while sensing the time and effort invested in them.
In This Exhibition, You Will Discover
Jasu Jumeoni, which translates to embroidered pouches in Korean. Throughout Korea's history, a wide variety of pouches were created for different purposes, as traditional Korean clothing lacked pockets. Instead, Koreans would utilise various parts of their garments, such as wide sleeves, as pockets or pouches, depending on the occasion, irrespective of their social status.
One of the key distinctions between pouches used by the nobility and those of common people lies in the embroidery style. Royal embroidery, meticulously crafted by professional embroiderers, stands apart due to the level of twist in silk threads and the amount of gold thread used. This exhibition showcases a collection of traditional Korean pouches featuring royal embroidery, all meticulously handcrafted by Korean embroidery artist Heehwa Jo. Originally based in Seoul, she has spent a year in Edinburgh and is currently residing in London. Each piece is accompanied by informative captions that provide noteworthy insights into these exquisite creations.
Jasu Jumeoni, which translates to embroidered pouches in Korean. Throughout Korea's history, a wide variety of pouches were created for different purposes, as traditional Korean clothing lacked pockets. Instead, Koreans would utilise various parts of their garments, such as wide sleeves, as pockets or pouches, depending on the occasion, irrespective of their social status.
One of the key distinctions between pouches used by the nobility and those of common people lies in the embroidery style. Royal embroidery, meticulously crafted by professional embroiderers, stands apart due to the level of twist in silk threads and the amount of gold thread used. This exhibition showcases a collection of traditional Korean pouches featuring royal embroidery, all meticulously handcrafted by Korean embroidery artist Heehwa Jo. Originally based in Seoul, she has spent a year in Edinburgh and is currently residing in London. Each piece is accompanied by informative captions that provide noteworthy insights into these exquisite creations.
(From the left)
화접문 향주머니 [Hwajeop-mun hyang-jumeoni]
Perfume Pouch with Flower and Butterfly Design, 110 x 110 mm, 2022
Gold and silk thread and pearl on satin silk
This pouch replicates one of the most famous Korean pouch designs, which has been a continuous source of inspiration for embroiderers, painters, designers in the fashion industries in Korea. The use of an abundant amount of pearls, combined with gold thread, signifies its prestigious origins. One of the original artefacts of this design was once owned by the last queen in Korea's history. The primary stitching technique employed here is Jinggeum-su(couching stitch), utilising gold threads in two different thicknesses. The finer thread is used to fill in the shapes, while the thicker thread outlines all the edges and details both around and within the shapes. The back side of each pouch is also adorned with the same exquisite embroidery.
모란문 향주머니 [Moran-mun hyang-jumeoni]
Perfume Pouch with Peony Design, 120 x 90 mm, 2018
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
Perfume Pouch with Peony Design, 120 x 90 mm, 2018
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
도류불수문 향주머니 [Doryubulsu-mun hyang-jumeoni]
Perfume Pouch with Peach, Pomegranate and Buddha’s Hand Design, 120 x 90 mm, 2018
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
Perfume Pouch with Peach, Pomegranate and Buddha’s Hand Design, 120 x 90 mm, 2018
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
Each pouch features the same embroidery design on both sides, primarily using the Jinggeum -su(couching stitch) technique. However, they employ different decorative silk thread colors on contrasting fabric backgrounds, with one side in red and the other in yellow. While many traditional Korean embroideries typically prioritise silk thread as the main material with gold thread as a secondary element, these pouches demonstrate a noticeable departure. Here, gold and silver threads take center stage, showcasing a departure from the norm often seen in artefacts from the royal court.
The couching stitch technique requires two types of threads: one to secure and the other to be secured. When these threads differ in color, the spacing of the securing stitches becomes crucial, as it stands out prominently. This deliberate variation in spacing, such as the use of red silk thread on gold thread in these pouches, adds a decorative effect.
(From the left)
원수문 두루주머니 [Wonsu-mun duru-jumeoni]
Round Pouch with Circle ‘Su(Longevity)’ Letter Design, 130 x 95 mm, 2018
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
This pouch features a rich array of longevity symbols meticulously embroidered in gold and silver thread. At its center, a circular Chinese character signifies 'longevity.' On the left side, you'll find a bat, whose pronunciation in both Korean and Chinese conveys 'happiness,' along with a mushroom, renowned as an elixir of life, and a peach, which is a Taoist favorite fruit. On the right side, there's a coin-shaped auspicious symbol of wealth, a plum blossom flower, and a bamboo tree, both representing fidelity and perseverance.
What sets this pouch apart is its seventeen-times pleated mouth, symbolising the possessor's high position. The original model for this pouch was also associated with Korea's last royal family. Considering that, in ancient Korea, the general number of pleats in pouches typically ranged from five to seven, it becomes evident just how exceptionally lavish and intricate this pouch is. Remarkably, the back side is adorned with the same intricate embroidery.
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
This pouch features a rich array of longevity symbols meticulously embroidered in gold and silver thread. At its center, a circular Chinese character signifies 'longevity.' On the left side, you'll find a bat, whose pronunciation in both Korean and Chinese conveys 'happiness,' along with a mushroom, renowned as an elixir of life, and a peach, which is a Taoist favorite fruit. On the right side, there's a coin-shaped auspicious symbol of wealth, a plum blossom flower, and a bamboo tree, both representing fidelity and perseverance.
What sets this pouch apart is its seventeen-times pleated mouth, symbolising the possessor's high position. The original model for this pouch was also associated with Korea's last royal family. Considering that, in ancient Korea, the general number of pleats in pouches typically ranged from five to seven, it becomes evident just how exceptionally lavish and intricate this pouch is. Remarkably, the back side is adorned with the same intricate embroidery.
도류불수문 두루주머니 [Doryubulsu-mun duru-jumeoni]
Round Pouch with Peach, Pomegranate and Buddha’s Hand Design, 130 x 95 mm, 2018
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
A peach, a pomegranate, and a Buddha’s hand – a type of citrus also known as fingered citron. These three fruits are often combined to create a typical design called Doryubulsu-mun, which literally means a design(mun) with peaches(do), pomegranates(ryu), and Buddha’s hands(bulsu) in Korean. Each of these three fruits carries symbolic meanings: the peach is known as a Taoist's favorite fruit and a symbol of longevity, the pomegranate represents fertility, and the Buddha’s hand symbolises the spirit of Buddhism itself. This pattern clearly illustrates that traditional Korean culture was influenced by a combination of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism.
The main stitching technique used is Jinggeum-su(couching stitch) with gold and silver threads, along with green silk threads. When examining the leaves, you can see that the green silk thread whips around the gold thread, creating a textured effect. On the other hand, another finer thread, matching the color of the metallic thread, whips around the remaining part of the gold and silver threads. The backside of the piece is also adorned with the same embroidery.
Round Pouch with Peach, Pomegranate and Buddha’s Hand Design, 130 x 95 mm, 2018
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
A peach, a pomegranate, and a Buddha’s hand – a type of citrus also known as fingered citron. These three fruits are often combined to create a typical design called Doryubulsu-mun, which literally means a design(mun) with peaches(do), pomegranates(ryu), and Buddha’s hands(bulsu) in Korean. Each of these three fruits carries symbolic meanings: the peach is known as a Taoist's favorite fruit and a symbol of longevity, the pomegranate represents fertility, and the Buddha’s hand symbolises the spirit of Buddhism itself. This pattern clearly illustrates that traditional Korean culture was influenced by a combination of Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism.
The main stitching technique used is Jinggeum-su(couching stitch) with gold and silver threads, along with green silk threads. When examining the leaves, you can see that the green silk thread whips around the gold thread, creating a textured effect. On the other hand, another finer thread, matching the color of the metallic thread, whips around the remaining part of the gold and silver threads. The backside of the piece is also adorned with the same embroidery.
연화문 향주머니 [Yeonhwa-mun hyang-jumeoni norigae]
Perfume Pouch Ornament with Peony Design, 80 x 60 mm, 2021
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
This pouch is exquisitely embroidered and shaped into the same lotus design, with a lotus flower embracing a seedpod at its center, facing downward. These pouches serve as accessories, typically hung with colorful strings over skirts while emitting pleasant scents of dried herbs or solid perfumes from within. The gold and silver embroidery is skillfully executed using the Jinggeum-su(couching stitch) technique, while tiny red knot decorations are added using Ssiat-su(French knot stitch). Another noteworthy stitch technique is Satteugi, a traditional Korean stitch widely employed to secure, strengthen, and prevent sewn items from wearing out. Satteugi is remarkable for its camouflaged red color, which matches the fabric, making it challenging to identify. It involves densely layered X stitches, effectively creating a whipping stitch.
(From the left)
장생문 약주머니 [Jangsaeng-mun yak-jumeoni]
Medicine Pouch with Longevity Symbols, 95 x 110 mm, 2022
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
This pouch features traditional longevity symbols that are commonly found in East Asian culture. However, a distinct set of these symbols unique to Korea is known as Jangsaeng-mun or Sip-jangsaeng-mun. In Korean, 'Jangsaeng' means longevity, 'Mun' stands for pattern, and 'Sip' signifies ten, symbolising abundance rather than an exact count of ten symbols. Most of these symbols are incorporated into the embroidery designs on this pouch, including the sun, clouds, water waves, rocks, cranes, tortoises, deer, pine trees, bamboo trees, and mushrooms, known as the elixir of life.
The pouch's distinctive folded appearance resembles traditional Korean medicine pouches used to carry medicines. However, given the intricate and sophisticated embroidery adorning it, it is likely more ornamental than functional. The two pouches in the middle demonstrate how the medicine pouch is folded and sewn before a string is attached to it. Among the noteworthy embroidery techniques used, the rocks at the bottom center, the hill on the right, and the lotus flowers along the bottom edge are all meticulously embroidered using Jarit-su(brick stitch). Additionally, almost all the designs are outlined with gold thread stitched using Jinggeum-su(couching stitch).
Medicine Pouch with Longevity Symbols, 95 x 110 mm, 2022
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
This pouch features traditional longevity symbols that are commonly found in East Asian culture. However, a distinct set of these symbols unique to Korea is known as Jangsaeng-mun or Sip-jangsaeng-mun. In Korean, 'Jangsaeng' means longevity, 'Mun' stands for pattern, and 'Sip' signifies ten, symbolising abundance rather than an exact count of ten symbols. Most of these symbols are incorporated into the embroidery designs on this pouch, including the sun, clouds, water waves, rocks, cranes, tortoises, deer, pine trees, bamboo trees, and mushrooms, known as the elixir of life.
The pouch's distinctive folded appearance resembles traditional Korean medicine pouches used to carry medicines. However, given the intricate and sophisticated embroidery adorning it, it is likely more ornamental than functional. The two pouches in the middle demonstrate how the medicine pouch is folded and sewn before a string is attached to it. Among the noteworthy embroidery techniques used, the rocks at the bottom center, the hill on the right, and the lotus flowers along the bottom edge are all meticulously embroidered using Jarit-su(brick stitch). Additionally, almost all the designs are outlined with gold thread stitched using Jinggeum-su(couching stitch).
약주머니 노리개 [Yak-jumeoni norigae]
Medicine Pouch Ornament, 45 x 55 mm, 2020
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
This pair of pouches was meticulously crafted based on an ancient hand-drawn design that exists solely as a paper form and not as actual artefacts. While these pouches share the same shape as medicine pouches, their primary purpose would have been decorative ornamentation rather than functional use.
Medicine Pouch Ornament, 45 x 55 mm, 2020
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
This pair of pouches was meticulously crafted based on an ancient hand-drawn design that exists solely as a paper form and not as actual artefacts. While these pouches share the same shape as medicine pouches, their primary purpose would have been decorative ornamentation rather than functional use.
(From the left)
연화문 두루주머니 [Yeonhwa-mun duru-jumeoni]
Round Pouch with Lotus Design, 130 x 120 mm, 2021
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
This pouch showcases several traditional Korean patterns, including a set of peony designs featuring lotus flowers, lotus leaves, and lotus seed pods, along with a pair of birds, rocks, and water waves. These elements are symmetrically positioned and meticulously embroidered on silk fabric adorned with a peony pattern. The same design, albeit in slightly different colors, is replicated on the back side of the pouch.
In addition to the fundamental embroidery techniques such as Pyeong-su(satin stitch), Ieum-su(stem stitch), and Ssiat-su(French knot stitch), you'll find one of the most unique Korean stitches, Jarit-su, used in the lotus flowers, rocks, and water waves. Jarit-su, once widely employed in royal embroidery in ancient Korea, is comparable to stitches like brick stitch or long and short stitch but maintains its distinctiveness.Another distinctive feature of royal Korean embroidery is the use of Jinggeum-su(couching stitch) with gold thread, which surrounds the entire border of the silk embroidery. This technique is commonly described as elaborate, elegant, and decorative.
봉황문 귀주머니 [Bonghwang-mun gui-jumeoni]
Eared Pouch with Phoenix Design, 130 x 130 mm, 2021
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
This kind of pouch is aptly named for its unique shape resembling a pair of ears, which metaphorically conveys angular edges, both in Korean and English. This is crafted by combining two fabrics, one for the main body and the other for the ear-like extensions. Each part is meticulously adorned with refined royal embroidery, setting them apart from the more common ear-shaped pouches used by ordinary people, which are typically made from a single piece of fabric.
Bong and hwang, the mythical creatures representing male and female phoenix, often symbolises royal status. In addition to this motif, the pouches feature intricate symmetrical designs and exquisite embroidery that covers the entire surface, exuding nobility, value, and dignity. Notably, the use of Sok-su, or inner stitches, is a significant technique applied to these pouches. These inner stitches serve as fillers, adding depth and a three-dimensional quality to the embroidery. These invisible stitches, made from relatively thicker cotton thread, are found beneath the depictions of clouds, the phoenix, concentric semicircle waves, rolling waves, and even tiny bubbles.
연화문 귀주머니 [Yeonhwa-mun gui-jumeoni]
Eared Pouch with Lotus Design, 140 x 135 mm, 2021
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
This pouch was meticulously crafted based on an ancient hand-drawn design that exists solely as a paper form and not as an actual artefact. While it shares the same physical features as the pouch at the top, its embroidery design within the red body is extraordinarily complex and compact. Remarkably, it also incorporates Sok-su, the invisible inner stitch, beneath almost every embroidery, including in the narrow neck of the vase.The motif of Yeonhwa, the lotus flower, well-known as a symbol of Buddhism, is a prevalent and popular choice in Korean embroidery. Traditional Korean culture has a close association with Buddhism. However, in this design, the lotus is used more for decorative purposes than religious symbolism. It is accompanied by other auspicious symbols, such as the cone-shaped Seogak - resembling a rhinoceros's horn, enhancing the overall ornamental quality of the pouch.
(From the left)
나비 향주머니 노리개 [Nabi hyang-jumeoni norigae]
Butterfly Perfume Pouch Ornament, 95 x 50 mm, 2021
Silk and gold thread and pearl on satin silk
These butterfly-shaped pouch ornaments feature intricate flower designs. In addition to butterflies, it was common to craft pouches in the shapes of various natural objects, including cicadas, bats, tortoises, and peaches. Creating these pieces requires extra care due to their small size, intricate embroidery, sharp edges, and narrow pleats designed to thread a string through. The two red pouches evoke a typical Korean atmosphere through their use of traditional color compositions. In contrast, the pale pink pouch, a variation of the same design as one of the red pouches, has a more contemporary feel, thanks to its nearly monotone-colored embroidery.
These pouches showcase a variety of traditional Korean stitches. Among them, you can find Jaryeon-su(long and short stitch for shading) used in the flowers of both red pouches, Jinggeum-su(couching stitch) employed around every silk embroidery edge, and Jarit-su(brick stitch) featured particularly in the large fan-shaped embroideries on each wing of the red pouch on the very right. Additionally, Satteugi('X' whipping stitch) is used to edge the pouches, with the thread matching the fabric color for reinforcement.
두루주머니 노리개 [Duru-jumeoni norigae]
Round Pouch Ornament, 45 x 50 mm, 2020
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
These miniature pouches are typically attached to clothing or other accessories as ornamental decorations, emphasising their decorative rather than functional nature. Despite their tiny size, smaller than the palm of your hand, they manage to incorporate a significant number of symbols. These symbols are stitched with the same precision as larger pouches, using various embroidery techniques, including Pyeong-su(satin stitch), Ieum-su(stem stitch), Ssiat-su(French knot stitch), Jarit-su(brick stitch), and Jinggeum-su(couching stitch). The same intricate design is replicated on the back side as well.
Round Pouch Ornament, 45 x 50 mm, 2020
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
These miniature pouches are typically attached to clothing or other accessories as ornamental decorations, emphasising their decorative rather than functional nature. Despite their tiny size, smaller than the palm of your hand, they manage to incorporate a significant number of symbols. These symbols are stitched with the same precision as larger pouches, using various embroidery techniques, including Pyeong-su(satin stitch), Ieum-su(stem stitch), Ssiat-su(French knot stitch), Jarit-su(brick stitch), and Jinggeum-su(couching stitch). The same intricate design is replicated on the back side as well.
Paper Pattern for an Pillow End Embroidery(National Placae Museum of Korea) & 국화당초문 향주머니 [Gukhwa-dangcho-mun hyang-jumeoni]
Perfume Pouch with Chrysanthemum and Scroll Design, 100 x 100 mm, 90 x 90 mm, 80 x 80 mm, 70 x 70 mm, 2022
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
This series of pouches stands out as one of the most creatively inspired works in this exhibition. The design draws its inspiration from an ancient royal pillow end embroidery pattern, known only from time-worn paper records. This design was ingeniously modified to suit the round pouch format. Technically, the embroidery predominantly employs Jinggeum-su(couching stitch) to both fill in and outline the various shapes, a result of incorporating the technical style seen in other pouches embellished with a string of pearls, along with a subtle twist using slightly different gold and silver threads.
What lends these pouches a modern flair, setting them apart from traditional designs, are the string colors. Traditionally, great emphasis is placed on color harmony, typically achieved through sets of contrasting colors, often carrying symbolic meanings such as Eum-yang(yin and yang). However, each pouch here is paired with a string in the same color or a related hue as part of a 'Dyed to Match' approach, a term commonly used in the garment industry to signify that garment accessories like sewing thread and linings are dyed to match the main fabric color. This represents a departure from the lifelong habit ingrained in traditional Korean perspectives.
Perfume Pouch with Chrysanthemum and Scroll Design, 100 x 100 mm, 90 x 90 mm, 80 x 80 mm, 70 x 70 mm, 2022
Gold, silver and silk thread on satin silk
This series of pouches stands out as one of the most creatively inspired works in this exhibition. The design draws its inspiration from an ancient royal pillow end embroidery pattern, known only from time-worn paper records. This design was ingeniously modified to suit the round pouch format. Technically, the embroidery predominantly employs Jinggeum-su(couching stitch) to both fill in and outline the various shapes, a result of incorporating the technical style seen in other pouches embellished with a string of pearls, along with a subtle twist using slightly different gold and silver threads.
What lends these pouches a modern flair, setting them apart from traditional designs, are the string colors. Traditionally, great emphasis is placed on color harmony, typically achieved through sets of contrasting colors, often carrying symbolic meanings such as Eum-yang(yin and yang). However, each pouch here is paired with a string in the same color or a related hue as part of a 'Dyed to Match' approach, a term commonly used in the garment industry to signify that garment accessories like sewing thread and linings are dyed to match the main fabric color. This represents a departure from the lifelong habit ingrained in traditional Korean perspectives.
화접문 향주머니 [Hwajeop-mun hyang-jumeoni]
Perfume Pouch with Flower and Butterfly Design, 100 x 100 mm, 90 x 90 mm, 2022
Gold and silk thread and pearl on satin silk
This pouch serves as a model for one of the most renowned Korean pouch designs, which has not only inspired embroiderers, painters, designers in the fashion industry in Korea but also holds historical significance. The lavish use of pearls, combined with gold thread, signifies its esteemed heritage, as one of the original artefacts was once owned by the last queen in Korea's history.
The primary stitching technique employed is Jinggeum-su(couching stitch), utilising gold threads in two different thicknesses. The finer thread is used to fill in the shapes, while the thicker thread outlines all the edges and intricate details around and over the shapes. Remarkably, each side of the pouch is also adorned with the same intricate embroidery. While the same red pouch with pearls in the first section on the left closely mirrors the size and colors of the original artefact, these two pouches are smaller in scale and feature different fabric and string color combinations, along with gold thread in slightly varying shades.
(From the top)
쌍용문 붓주머니 [Ssang-yong-mun but-jumeoni] & Pattern for an Pillow End Embroidery(National Placae Museum of Korea)
Brush Pouch with Dragon Pair Design, 110 x 310 mm, 2021
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
Brush Pouch with Dragon Pair Design, 110 x 310 mm, 2021
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
기린문 붓주머니 [Girin-mun but-jumeoni] & Pattern for an Pillow End Embroidery(National Placae Museum of Korea)
Brush Pouch with Kylin Design, 110 x 310 mm, 2021
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
장생문 붓주머니 [Jangsaeng-mun but-jumeoni] & Pattern for an Pillow End Embroidery(National Placae Museum of Korea)
Brush Pouch with Longevity Symbols, 110 x 310 mm, 2021
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
Brush Pouch with Longevity Symbols, 110 x 310 mm, 2021
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
연화문 붓주머니 [Yeonhwa-mun but-jumeoni] & Pattern for an Pillow End Embroidery(National Placae Museum of Korea)
Brush Pouch with Lotus Design, 110 x 310 mm, 2021
Silk and gold thread on satin silk
This set of four brush pouches was meticulously crafted based on ancient hand-drawn designs originally created for the royal court. These designs exist solely as paper forms and not as actual artefacts. The primary purpose of these pouches is to hold brushes, typically calligraphy brushes. The embroidery on these pouches features themes of longevity and auspicious symbols associated with nature, myths, Buddhism, or Taoism. The distinctive pouch shape is achieved through a paper-folding method and sewing. Notably, the entire process is completed after the embroidered fabric is folded, demanding a precisely structured design and a high level of stitching accuracy.
During the Joseon Dynasty(1392-1897), the last dynastic kingdom in Korea's history, there were official departments and positions in the royal court specifically dedicated to various arts and crafts. These departments, such as Dohwa-seo for drawing and painting, Chim-bang for sewing, and Su-bang for embroidering, had specialised roles. When creating embroidered pouches like these, multiple departments would have collaborated. Firstly, a painter would draw the embroidery design, then an embroiderer would transfer the design onto the fabric and complete the embroidery, and finally, a sewer would shape the pouch. This collaborative process stands in contrast to how ordinary people would handle similar tasks independently.
JOHH